![]() ![]() Animal exercise models are useful tools to investigate and decipher the functional and molecular mechanisms of exercise-induced protection. 20 Indeed, increasing research interest has been focused on the mechanisms of exercise’s benefits for cardiovascular health. 19 Exercise plays a crucial role in both primary and secondary prevention of HF. 18 In clinical interventions, appropriate exercise training has been proven to enhance exercise capacity and cardiorespiratory fitness, reduce hospitalization, and improve life quality in patients with hypertension, coronary heart disease (CHD), cardiomyopathy, and heart failure (HF). In addition to the encouraging benefits of physical activity in the healthy population, exercise training has also been prescribed as medicine for different CVD. 16 In fact, physical activity below the recommended daily level was still found to be associated with reduced all-cause mortality and extended life expectancy even for those at risk for CVD. However, increasing evidence indicates that even low levels of physical activity can be beneficial compared to inactivity. 16 Owing to the fast-paced rhythm of living in modern societies, a vast majority of the population fails to meet the physical activity recommendation. WHO guidelines recommend physical activity of moderate to vigorous intensity across all age groups and abilities. The 2019 UK Chief Medical Officers’ Physical Activity Guidelines recommend appropriate physical activity for the pregnant and post-partum women, older adults (≥65 years), and disabled people as well. 14 In fact, a recommendation for physical activity has been set in place and addresses the healthy population of all age groups. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans recommend at least 60 min of physical activity daily, for children and adolescents, and 150 min of moderate-intensity aerobic activity or 75 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic activity combined with 120 min of muscle-strengthening activities per week for adults. 4, 5, 6, 7 Moreover, appropriate physical activity also improves cardiorespiratory fitness and reduces all-cause mortality and CVD mortality. 2, 3 An accumulating body of cohort studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses have documented the beneficial effects of physical activity in reducing cardiovascular risk factors and risk of cardiovascular events. 1 Data from a myriad of clinical and basic research studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of exercise training on cardiovascular health, while physical inactivity has long been considered as a critical cardiovascular risk factor for the development of CVD. We conclude that a deep understanding of the signaling pathways involved in exercise’s benefits for cardiovascular health will undoubtedly contribute to the identification and development of novel therapeutic targets and strategies for CVD.Ĭardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of mortality worldwide. We also discuss multiple factors that influence exercise’s effect and highlight the importance and need for further investigations regarding the exercise-regulated molecules as therapeutic targets and biomarkers for CVD as well as the cross talk between the heart and other tissues or organs during exercise. Moreover, we address the exercise-mediated signaling pathways and molecules that can serve as potential therapeutic targets ranging from pharmacological approaches to gene therapies in CVD. Exercise-regulated noncoding RNAs and their associated signaling pathways are also discussed in detail for their roles and mechanisms in exercise-induced cardioprotective effects. The signaling molecules that are necessary for exercise-induced physiological cardiac hypertrophy have the potential to attenuate myocardial injury and reverse cardiac remodeling. The exercise-regulated signaling cascades have been shown to confer myocardial protection and drive systemic adaptations. We then discuss in detail the signaling pathways mediating exercise’s benefits for cardiovascular health. First, this review summarizes the beneficial impact of exercise on multiple aspects of cardiovascular health. Functional and mechanistic studies that employ animal exercise models as well as observational and interventional cohort studies with human participants, have contributed considerably in delineating the essential signaling pathways by which exercise promotes cardiovascular fitness and health. Exercise training has been widely recognized as a healthy lifestyle as well as an effective non-drug therapeutic strategy for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). ![]()
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